The Effects Of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd )

The Developmental Psychopathological Approach to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Introduction This report endeavours to provide a Developmental Psychopathological Approach of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Developmental Psychopathology is broadly conceptualised as depicting the dynamic processes underlying ‘typical’ child development (Campbell, Cummings Patrick,2003). An awareness of ‘typical’ and ‘atypical’ developmental characteristics at varied ages and developmental stages is crucial for parents and health professionals. Through the use of developmental psychopathology, clinicians and parents are able to gain an insight into children’s behaviour, as well as acknowledge assessments, therapeutic planning and treatments†¦show more content†¦In general, children who experience a single-occurring trauma display symptoms of PTSD within a year. In some cases this can be delayed and re-emerge in later life. The diagnosis of PTSD originated in the 1980s’s when war veterans displayed symptoms. PTSD was conseque ntly only conceptualised for traumatised adults in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2013).However, recent studies proposed that children and adolescents between 1-18 years old show distinct symptoms that contribute to the development of PTSD. As a result, the DSM -5 issued a new sub-type criterion for Preschool children under the age of six. These core symptoms are divided into four clusters: re-experiencing, emotional numbing, avoidance and hyper-arousal (APA,2013). Individuals must display at least one symptom from each cluster for one month or longer and it must cause significant distress to the child’s development. Children with PTSD may re-experience the trauma through intrusive forms of thought, flashbacks, nightmares and emotional or physical distress. Young children tend to generalise recurring nightmares into unrecognisable content, such as monsters. In addition, children may experience the trauma through repetitive play, re-enactment and destructive behaviour. The second cluster is avoidance patterns. This refers to children avoiding distressing thoughts, feelings and reminders of the

Mood Free Essays

Mood disorders are those disorders that have a disturbance in mood as their predominant feature. This group includes several nosoforms such as affective disorders, psychotic bipolar disorder and depressive disorders. The last are presented by the involutional and postpartum depression, dysthymic disorder and seasonal affective disorder. We will write a custom essay sample on Mood or any similar topic only for you Order Now All listed conditions are very frequent – about 14.3% of the population is stroked by the mood disorders. The aim of this review is comparing the different treatments for the mood disorders by example of postpartum mood disorders. Databases searched for this review included PsycINFO only. There are several risk factors of postpartum mood disturbances. After delivery the level of steroid hormones (estrogens, gestagens and cortisol) changes dramatically. Some women are very sensitive to these hormonal changes and can react with changes of the mood. Psychosocial risk factors include low income and inadequate social supports, recent negative life events, marital conflict or dissatisfaction. Heredity and individual susceptibility are risk factors for postpartum depression. Thus women with individual or family history of a mood disorder have higher risk of postpartum depression. A prior history of postpartum mood disorder increases the risk of recurrence of the depression in two folds. Postpartum changes of the mood are not rare complications of accouchement. There are different symptoms of mood disturbance – from transitory and mild signs of postpartum blues and up to the severe postpartum depression and puerperal psychosis. Nonacs R. and Cohen LS. (1998) write that mood changes during the puerperium are often overlooked. This fact arouses the risk of the episodes of recurrent depression in mothers. Another important issue of the problem is a risk of the remote consequences of mother’s mood disturbance on the future mental and physical development of child. To prevent those long-term effects the early diagnostics and effective treatment interventions should be applied. Some forms of the postpartum mood disorder do not require any specific treatment, e.g. the most common (30-75% of new mothers) form of the mood disturbances, so called â€Å"baby blues† require only education, reassurance and support. More serious conditions, like postpartum depression, need more active interventions. This condition occurs in 15-20 % of all women recently confined. It is characterized by anxiety, irritability, insomnia, fatigue, low interest to the baby and other symptoms of major depression. Seyfried LS and Marcus SM. (2003) indicate that pharmacological treatment for patients with postpartum depression can be limited because some psychoactive drugs are contraindicated in lactation and psychotherapeutic approaches became the method of the choice. On other hand, rare cases of postpartum psychosis require psychiatric emergency care and urgent drug treatment. Thus the differentiation of treatment mode is important element of the care in the postnatal changes of the mood. Series of works by Dennis CL. et all. (2004) are dedicated to the problem of treatment of postpartum depression. Authors consider that the most effective schemes of psychotherapy include interpersonal psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, peer and partner support, nondirective counseling, relaxation/massage therapy, infant sleep interventions, infant-mother relationship therapy, and maternal exercise. Unfortunately the available clinical trials studied these methods and their effectiveness, were designed poorly and have low level of evidence. Thus definite conclusions about the relative effectiveness of the different treatments cannot be reached. Authors recommend to increase the number of randomized controlled trials needed for comparing different treatment schemes, examining the effectiveness of individual treatment components and selecting the optimum treatments for women with different anamnesis and status praesens objectivus. Other group of interventions using in the psychiatry for treatment of postpartum depression includes antidepressant medication, estrogen therapy, critically timed sleep deprivation, and bright light therapy. Some of these interventions can be applied to other types of depressions unrelated to puerperium but the issues of pharmacological safety can limit them. As an example of mentioned above we can use the results of the study by Reck C. et all. (2004). They found, that mother-infant interaction plays a central role in the treatment of postpartum depression. They explain this fact with high sensitivity of infants to their mothers’ emotional state. The authors consider that postpartum depression is a risk factor for disturbances of children’s development. They proposed the integrated model of treatment which is based on   mother-infant-centered interventions. Similar propositions contains the research paper of Hofecker-Fallahpour M. et all. (2003). This group of Swiss investigators proposed the program of group therapy for depressive mothers, including those who has postpartum depression. The main therapeutic method in this program is behavioral therapy. Clark R, Tluczek A. and Wenzel A. from the University of Wisconsin Medical School published work (2004) about the priorities of psychotherapy in the patients with postpartum depression. They think that group psychotherapy and interpersonal psychotherapy should be superior to other methods of non-pharmacological treatment. The main objectives of the proposed treatment is â€Å"reducing maternal depressive symptoms, improving mothers’ perceptions of their infants’ adaptability and reinforcement value, and increasing mothers’ positive affect and verbalization with their infants†. Authors urge that early intervention for mothers with postpartum depression is crucial point of successful treatment. Different point of view was demonstrated by Cooper PJ, Murray L, Wilson A. and Romaniuk H. (2003). They think that psychological interventions for postnatal depression can be beneficial in the short term but this benefit is not superior to spontaneous remission in the long term. In their research Cooper PJ. et all. used routine primary care, non-directive counseling, cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic therapy. They found that all chosen treatments had a considerable impact at four months on maternal mood but only psychodynamic therapy reduced depression significantly. The last kind of therapy focused on patient’s experience and bygone conflicts of childhood and adolescence. All benefits of the treatment were not longer by nine months after delivery and did not reduce of recurrent episodes of depression in long-term perspective. These scientists urge that postnatal depression is associated with adverse child cognitive and socio-emotional outcome (2003). They found that early psychotherapeutic intervention had the short-term benefit to the mother-child relationship and infant behavior. In summarizing of foresaid we could said that the treatment of mood disorders in puerperal period includes two main components: medical interventions and psychotherapy. The choice of the methods and their combination depend on the severity of signs and risk of the recurrence of mood disorder. Women with mild disturbances of mood (postpartum blues) do not need specific treatment. This condition typically resolves spontaneously during first weeks. Because the medical interventions are not the subject of our competence we will focus on the findings in the field of psychotherapy. This approach is especially useful in women with mild or moderate severity of postnatal depression. The most of authors recommend group psychotherapy (cognitive-behavioral and interpersonal therapy), but individual therapy is effective too. These methods can be combined with educational programs. O’Hara MW. and his coauthors evaluated efficacy of different methods of psychotherapy for postpartum depression. They proposed interpersonal psychotherapy as the method of the choice in treatment of postpartum depression. They found that â€Å"interpersonal psychotherapy reduced depressive symptoms and improved social adjustment, and represents an alternative to pharmacotherapy, particularly for women who are breastfeeding†. We can see that the main benefit of psychotherapy is absence of adverse effects of taking medications. But in severe cases of postnatal depression or when patients do not respond to non-pharmacological treatment and in all cases of postpartum psychosis the pharmacological treatment is indicated. The prevalent forms of psychotherapy in the postnatal depression include cognitive therapy, behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy. Both individual and group therapy can be used. All types of non-pharmacological treatment are effective in mild and moderate severity of the depression. Untreated mood disorders place the mother at risk for recurrent disease. Furthermore, maternal depression is associated with long-term cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems in the child. One of the most important objectives is to increase awareness across the spectrum of health care professionals who care for women during pregnancy and the puerperium so that postpartum mood disorders may be identified early and treated appropriately. Effective pharmacological and non-pharmacological therapies are available. Every approach has the advantages and demerits. But to compare their effectiveness we need better-designed clinical trials and the unification of the approaches to the examining of the effectiveness of individual treatment components. Selecting the optimum treatments for women with different background and severity of the postnatal depression should be evidence-based and take into consideration the possibility of long-term effects of the mood disorder. References: 1.Clark R, Tluczek A, Wenzel A. (2003) Psychotherapy for postpartum depression: a preliminary report. Am J Orthopsychiatry. Oct; 73(4) p. 441-454. 2.Cooper PJ, Murray L, Wilson A, Romaniuk H. (2003) Controlled trial of the short- and long-term effect of psychological treatment of post-partum depression. I. Impact on maternal mood. Br J Psychiatry. May; 182: p. 412-419. 3.Dennis CL, Stewart DE. (2004) Treatment of postpartum depression, part 1: a critical review of biological interventions. J Clin Psychiatry. Sep; 65(9): p. 1242-1251. 4.Dennis CL. (2004) Treatment of postpartum depression, part 2: a critical review of nonbiological interventions. J Clin Psychiatry. Sep; 65(9): p. 1252-1265. 5.Hofecker-Fallahpour M., Zinkernagel-Burri C., Stà ¶ckli B., Wà ¼sten G., Stieglitz RD., Riecher-Rà ¶ssler A. (2003) Gruppentherapie bei Depression in der frà ¼hen Mutterschaft Erste Ergebnisse einer Pilotstudie Der Nervenarzt Sep.; Band 74, Nummer 9; S.: 767 – 774 6.Murray L, Cooper PJ, Wilson A, Romaniuk H. (2003) Controlled trial of the short- and long-term effect of psychological treatment of post-partum depression: 2. Impact on the mother-child relationship and child outcome. Br J Psychiatry. May; 182: p. 420-427. 7.Nonacs R, Cohen LS. (1998) Postpartum mood disorders: diagnosis and treatment guidelines. J Clin Psychiatry. 59 Suppl 2: p. 34-40. 8.O’Hara MW, Stuart S, Gorman LL, Wenzel A. (2000) Efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for postpartum depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Nov; 7(11) p. 1039-1045. 9.Reck C., Weiss R., Fuchs T., Mà ¶hler E., Downing G., Mundt C. (2004) Psychotherapie der postpartalen Depression Mutter-Kind-Interaktion im Blickpunkt. Der Nervenarzt. November Band 75, Nummer 11 S.: 1068 – 1073 10.Seyfried LS, Marcus SM. (2003) Postpartum mood disorders. Int Rev Psychiatry.   Aug; 15(3) p. 231-242. How to cite Mood, Essay examples

Entrepreneurship and Global Business Management

Question: Discuss about the Entrepreneurship and Global Business Management. Answer: Introduction Globalization is one of the most common terms in modern aspects of business. It provides the opportunities for all the companies irrespective of the nature of the business to organize its business operations beyond the national boundary (Barros, Gal and Kindler, 2012). The trend of doing business is entirely changed as compared with the traditional way of organizing business operations. The concept of globalization contributed as one of the vast aspects towards organizing a proper business proceeding. The report will focus on the purpose and overview of globalization and internationalization in business. It is the increasing interdependence, integration and interaction among the people and corporation in various locations around the world (Hatten, 2012). It is important to maintain globalization and internationalization at a same pace. Globalization and Internationalization The overall process of assimilation of a countrys polices, which are accepted universally across the world is known as globalization. However the concept of globalization allows different business firms to organize its business operations across the key cities of the globe. On the other the notion of internationalization is a design process which ensures a product or service of a company, adapted to its demographic condition and standards (Herting, 2012). Globalization is the process which results of shrinking of the world that mainly concludes in the stream of good ideas, moving back importance of limitations of time and space and losing ground the importance of nation state. Alternatively, the process of integrating an international, intercultural and global measurement in the purpose functions of the business (Lechner and Boli, 2012). However, it is an ongoing systematic process which links one city of the globe to another. There are lots of benefits of internalization as it save significant expense, time and headaches for everyone involved. The concept of globalization and the concept of internationalization are linked with each other. There are four important from of internationalization which mainly concludes about import, export, licensing and franchising (Lind, 2012). With the help of proper internationalization in the country some of the key benefits, which majorities of the companies faces includes faster growth, access to cheaper units and effect on performance of enterprise. Business Environment In the era of globalization it is one of the primary jobs for the managers to scan the business environment. It is one of the most important parts of the business to analyze the demands of the customers and decisions on the basis of the market demand. However, with the view fulfilling these particular objectives it is one of the most important parts of the managers to focus in the procedure of developing a proper situation analysis process, which will scan both the inner environment as well as the outer environment of the market (Mariotti and Glackin, 2012). The factors which comprise the internal business environment of the business are often known as the control factors. On the hand, the factors which comprise the external environment of the business are often not controllable factors. In the era of globalization business environment consists of two sub environment, which mainly includes micro environment and macro environment. There is a mutual agreement exits between these two environments. With the help of the two important marketing tools the overall analysis of the business environment is done. With the view of analyzing the internal environment, the use of the SWOT Analysis is one of the most successful marketing tools (Bertelsen, 2012). On the other hand, the use of PESTEL Analysis is mainly used towards scanning the external environment of the commerce. The most important environmental change that took place in the last few years is the idea of globalization of business and commerce. The world has become a global community and business has become a global character. The purchasing options of the buyers are more diversified. It is one of the most significant parts for the managers to scan the overall business environment with the view of analyzing all the fa ctors, which affects the purchasing decisions of the customers (Pride, Hughes and Kapoor, 2012). Business environment, changing nature of work, demographic, societal and workforce trends and changing nature of the employment association are some of the important classifications of the business environment in the era of globalization. Implication for the managers The role of the managers in the business process contributes as one of the most aspects of the organizational procedures. The decision making process of the managers towards the achievement of the common organizational goals is one of the most significant aspects in the managerial process. However, some of the most important implication processes of the managers are as follows: Technological Advancement Technology provided as one of the major breakthroughs in modern generations. It has changed the whole concept of organizing business. There are different kinds of significant aspects of technological advancement (Robbins and Coulter, 2012). It allows different organizations irrespective of the nature of the business gets certain competitive advantages. If the gesture of globalization has been the heavy force behind the most far reaching and controlling changes in business, then information technology has one of the major facilitator. Online marketing and shopping, online payment, advertisement platform, proper communication strategies and channels are some of the important factors, which provide certain competitive advantage for the organization in the operations (Scarborough, 2012). The managers need to perform a continuous activity for the better of the technological advancement. Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility Developing a proper business sustainability plan is one of the most challenging jobs for the managers in the operations. If business sustainability in the organization is marinated in a proper manner it will automatically boost the notion of the corporate social responsibility. There are different factors which hampers the sustainability as well as the profitability of the business firm (Barros, Gal and Kindler, 2012). In order to develop a proper sustainability plan in the business operations, different managers applied the role of a proper situation analysis in the business operations. Nevertheless, the notion of the corporate social responsibility provides an additional competitive benefit for the organization (Bertelsen, 2012). Business Ecosystems Business ecosystem in the organization is the mixtures of different kinds of innovative activities in the organization. The concept of business ecosystem is one of the most important implications for the managers, because innovations in the business ecosystem have a character distinct from traditional, vertically integrated firms (Hatten, 2012). Everyone in the business network has to be conscious about the bigger picture of the organization. Innovation in the business ecosystem maintains some of the important characteristics, which includes; both invent and evaluate efficient, cross-organization information flow of a proper business environment (Lechner and Boli, 2012). Conclusion Majorities of the business firms all over the world operate with a hyper turbulent change intensive surroundings. From the above analysis, some of the most important process of the global business environment includes outsourcing, downsizing and reengineering, towards ensuring the process of continuous success of the firm. The present report analyzed all the crucial factors of the modern aspects of the business. The main highlighted point in the overall study is the effect of globalization in the business environment (internal environment and external environment). The role of the managers contributes an important part on the modern aspects of business. The implication and the role of mangers are reflected in the study in the process of the decision making system of the organization. The readers of this particular report will be able to concentrate all the crucial factors, which are related in modern business. Reference List Barros, A., Gal, A. and Kindler, E. (2012).Business process management. 1st ed. Berlin: Springer. Bertelsen, B. (2012).Everything you need to know about SWOT analysis. 1st ed. [Newmarket, Ont.]: BrainMass Inc. Hatten, T. (2012).Small business management. 1st ed. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Herting, S. (2012).Globalization. 1st ed. Hamburg: Diplomica Verlag. Lechner, F. and Boli, J. (2012).The globalization reader. 1st ed. Chichester, West Sussex: J. Wiley Sons. Lind, P. (2012).Small business management in cross-cultural environments. 1st ed. New York: Routledge. Mariotti, S. and Glackin, C. (2012).Entrepreneurship small business management. 1st ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. Pride, W., Hughes, R. and Kapoor, J. (2012).Business. 1st ed. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Robbins, S. and Coulter, M. (2012).Management. 1st ed. Boston: Prentice Hall. Scarborough, N. (2012).Effective small business management. 1st ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall.